References
Abadie, Alberto, and Guido W. Imbens. 2016. “Matching on the
Estimated Propensity Score.” Econometrica 84 (2):
781–807. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA11293.
Austin, Peter C. 2022. “Bootstrap Vs Asymptotic Variance
Estimation When Using Propensity Score Weighting with Continuous and
Binary Outcomes.” Statistics in Medicine 41 (22):
4426–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.9519.
Bickel, Peter J., Eugene A. Hammel, and J. W. O’Connell. 1975.
“Sex Bias in Graduate Admissions: Data from Berkeley.”
Science 187 (4175): 398–404. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.187.4175.398.
Blandhol, Christine, John Bonney, Magne Mogstad, and Alexander
Torgovitsky. 2022. When Is TSLS Actually
LATE? Working Paper No. 29709. National Bureau of
Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w29709.
Boef, Anna G. C., Judith van Paassen, M. Sesmu Arbous, et al. 2014.
“Physician’s Preference-Based Instrumental Variable Analysis: Is
It Valid and Useful in a Moderate-Sized Study?”
Epidemiology 25 (6): 923–27. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000151.
Bound, John, David A. Jaeger, and Regina M. Baker. 1995. “Problems
with Instrumental Variables Estimation When the Correlation Between the
Instruments and the Endogenous Explanatory Variable Is Weak.”
Journal of the American Statistical Association 90 (430):
443–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1995.10476536.
Brookhart, M. Alan, Sebastian Schneeweiss, Kenneth J. Rothman, Robert J.
Glynn, Jerry Avorn, and Til Stürmer. 2006. “Variable Selection for
Propensity Score Models.” American Journal of
Epidemiology 163 (12): 1149–56. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj149.
Charig, C. R., D. R. Webb, S. R. Payne, and J. E. Wickham. 1986.
“Comparison of Treatment of Renal Calculi by Open Surgery,
Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy, and Extracorporeal Shockwave
Lithotripsy.” British Medical Journal (Clinical Research
Edition) 292 (6524): 879–82. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.292.6524.879.
Chen, Meng, and Victor W Zhong. 2024. “Abstract P192: Association
Between Time-Restricted Eating and All-Cause and Cause-Specific
Mortality.” Circulation 149 (March): AP192–92. https://doi.org/10.1161/circ.149.suppl_1.P192.
Chipman, Hugh A., Edward I. George, and Robert E. McCulloch. 2010.
“BART: Bayesian Additive Regression Trees.”
The Annals of Applied Statistics 4 (1): 266–98. https://doi.org/10.1214/09-AOAS285.
Cole, Stephen R., and Miguel A. Hernán. 2008. “Constructing
Inverse Probability Weights for Marginal Structural Models.”
American Journal of Epidemiology 168 (6): 656–64. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn164.
Connors, Jr., Alfred F., Theodore Speroff, Neal V. Dawson, et al. 1996.
“The Effectiveness of Right Heart Catheterization in the Initial
Care of Critically Ill Patients.” JAMA 276 (11): 889–97.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1996.03540110043030.
Cornfield, Jerome, William Haenszel, E. Cuyler Hammond, Abraham M.
Lilienfeld, Michael B. Shimkin, and Ernst L. Wynder. 2009.
“Smoking and Lung Cancer: Recent Evidence and a Discussion of Some
Questions*.” International Journal of Epidemiology 38
(5): 1175–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyp289.
Datta, Jyotishka, and Nicholas Polson. 2026. “Inverse Probability
Weighting: From Survey Sampling to Evidence Estimation.” The
New England Journal of Statistics in Data Science 4 (1): 64–76. https://doi.org/10.51387/26-NEJSDS100.
Doll, Richard, and A. Bradford Hill. 1956. “Lung Cancer and Other
Causes of Death in Relation to Smoking.” British Medical
Journal 2 (5001): 1071–81. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.5001.1071.
Doll, Richard, and Austin Bradford Hill. 1964. “Mortality in
Relation to Smoking: Ten Years’ Observations of British Doctors.”
British Medical Journal 1 (5395): 1399–410. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5395.1399.
Dorie, Vincent, Jennifer Hill, Uri Shalit, Marc Scott, and Dan Cervone.
2019. “Automated Versus Do-It-Yourself Methods for Causal
Inference: Lessons Learned from a Data Analysis Competition.”
Statistical Science 34 (1): 43–68. https://doi.org/10.1214/18-STS667.
Fisher, Ronald. 1958. “Cigarettes, Cancer, and Statistics.”
The Centennial Review of Arts & Science 2: 151–66. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23737529.
Fisher, Ronald A. 1957. “Dangers of Cigarette-Smoking.”
British Medical Journal 2 (5039): 297–98. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1961712/.
Frikke-Schmidt, Ruth, Børge G. Nordestgaard, Maria C. A. Stene, et al.
2008. “Association of Loss-of-Function Mutations in the
ABCA1 Gene with High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels
and Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease.” JAMA 299 (21):
2524–32. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.299.21.2524.
Gelman, Andrew. 2011. “Causality and Statistical Learning.”
American Journal of Sociology 117 (3): 955–66. https://sites.stat.columbia.edu/gelman/research/published/causalreview4.pdf.
Gwiazda, Jane, Edward Ong, Richard Held, and Frank Thorn. 2000.
“Myopia and Ambient Night-Time Lighting.” Nature
404 (6774): 144. https://doi.org/10.1038/35004663.
Hájek, Jaroslav. 1971. “Comment on a Paper by D.
Basu.” In Foundations of Statistical Inference,
edited by V. P. Godambe and D. A. Sprott. Holt, Rinehart; Winston.
Hammond, E. Cuyler, and Daniel Horn. 1958. “Smoking and Death
Rates—Report on Forty-Four Months of Follow-up of 187,783 Men.”
Journal of the American Medical Association 166 (11): 1294–308.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1958.02990110030007.
Hansen, Ben B. 2008. “The Prognostic Analogue of the Propensity
Score.” Biometrika 95 (2): 481–88. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/asn004.
Hernán, Miguel A., and James M. Robins. 2017. “Per-Protocol
Analyses of Pragmatic Trials.” New England Journal of
Medicine, ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsm1605385.
Hernán, Miguel A., and James M. Robins. 2020. Causal Inference: What
If. Chapman; Hall/CRC. https://miguelhernan.org/whatifbook.
Hill, Jennifer L. 2011. “Bayesian Nonparametric Modeling for
Causal Inference.” Journal of Computational and Graphical
Statistics 20 (1): 217–40. https://doi.org/10.1198/jcgs.2010.08162.
Horvitz, D. G., and D. J. Thompson. 1952. “A Generalization of
Sampling Without Replacement from a Finite Universe.” Journal
of the American Statistical Association 47 (260): 663–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1952.10483446.
Hueper, Wilhelm C. 1956. A Quest into the Environmental Causes of
Cancer of the Lung. Public Health Monograph No. 36. Department of
Health, Education,; Welfare.
Imai, Kosuke, Luke Keele, and Dustin Tingley. 2010. “A General
Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological
Methods 15 (4): 309–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020761.
Imai, Kosuke, Luke Keele, and Teppei Yamamoto. 2010.
“Identification, Inference and Sensitivity Analysis for Causal
Mediation Effects.” Statistical Science 25 (1): 51–71.
https://doi.org/10.1214/10-STS321.
Imai, Kosuke, and Marc Ratkovic. 2014. “Covariate Balancing
Propensity Score.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society:
Series B (Statistical Methodology) 76 (1): 243–63. https://imai.fas.harvard.edu/research/files/CBPS.pdf.
Imbens, Guido W., and Joshua D. Angrist. 1994. “Identification and
Estimation of Local Average Treatment Effects.”
Econometrica 62 (2): 467–75. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951620.
Julious, Steven A., and Mark A. Mullee. 1994. “Confounding and
Simpson’s Paradox.” BMJ 309 (6967): 1480–81. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.309.6967.1480.
Kennedy, Edward H. 2022. Semiparametric Doubly Robust Targeted
Double Machine Learning: A Review. https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.06469.
Khan, Samir, and Johan Ugander. 2023. “Adaptive Normalization for
IPW Estimation.” Journal of Causal
Inference 11 (1): 20220019. https://doi.org/10.1515/jci-2022-0019.
King, Gary, and Richard Nielsen. 2019. “Why Propensity Scores
Should Not Be Used for Matching.” Political Analysis 27
(4): 435–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/pan.2019.11.
Laan, Mark J. van der, and Daniel Rubin. 2006. “Targeted Maximum
Likelihood Learning.” The International Journal of
Biostatistics 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.2202/1557-4679.1043.
Malinsky, Daniel, Ilya Shpitser, and Thomas S. Richardson. 2019.
“A Potential Outcomes Calculus for Identifying Conditional
Path-Specific Effects.” Proceedings of the Twenty-Second
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Statistics,
Proceedings of machine learning research, vol. 89: 3080–88. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v89/malinsky19b.html.
Pearl, Judea. 1995. “Causal Diagrams for Empirical
Research.” Biometrika 82 (4): 669–88. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/82.4.669.
Pearl, Judea. 2009. Causality: Models, Reasoning, and
Inference. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. https://bayes.cs.ucla.edu/BOOK-2K/.
Pearl, Judea, and Thomas S. Verma. 1991. “A Theory of Inferred
Causation.” In Principles of Knowledge Representation and
Reasoning: Proceedings of the Second International Conference,
edited by James A. Allen, Richard Fikes, and Erik Sandewall. Morgan
Kaufmann. https://ftp.cs.ucla.edu/pub/stat_ser/r156-reprint.pdf.
Quinn, Graham E., Chai H. Shin, Maureen G. Maguire, and Richard A.
Stone. 1999. “Myopia and Ambient Lighting at Night.”
Nature 399 (6732): 113–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/20094.
Richardson, Thomas S., and James M. Robins. 2013. Single World
Intervention Graphs (SWIGs): A Unification of the
Counterfactual and Graphical Approaches to Causality. Working Paper
No. 128. Center for Statistics; the Social Sciences, University of
Washington. https://csss.uw.edu/Papers/2013/wp128.pdf.
Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1983. “The Central Role
of the Propensity Score in Observational Studies for Causal
Effects.” Biometrika 70 (1): 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41.
Rubin, Donald B. 1980. “Randomization Analysis of Experimental
Data: The Fisher Randomization Test Comment.” Journal of the
American Statistical Association 75 (371): 591–93. https://doi.org/10.2307/2287653.
Sanderson, Eleanor, Tom G. Richardson, Gibran Hemani, and George Davey
Smith. 2021. “The Use of Negative Control Outcomes in
Mendelian Randomization to Detect Potential Population
Stratification.” International Journal of Epidemiology
50 (4): 1350–61. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyaa288.
Westreich, Daniel, Stephen R. Cole, Michele Jonsson Funk, M. Alan
Brookhart, and Til Stürmer. 2011. “The Role of the c-Statistic in
Variable Selection for Propensity Score Models.”
Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 20 (3): 317–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.2074.
Writing Group for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. 2002.
“Risks and Benefits of Estrogen Plus Progestin in Healthy
Postmenopausal Women: Principal Results from the Women’s Health
Initiative Randomized Controlled Trial.” JAMA 288 (3):
321–33. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.3.321.